Iran

Persia — A 2,500-Year-Old Civilisation Behind Modern Iran’s Theological Republic

Iran is the modern political form of Persia — one of the world’s oldest continuous civilisations, with documented history extending back to the Achaemenid Empire (550-330 BC) under Cyrus the Great and Darius I, when Persia was the largest empire the world had then seen. Successive Persian empires — the Parthian, Sassanid, Safavid, Qajar, and Pahlavi dynasties — shaped the cultural, religious, and political development of an enormous region from Central Asia to the Mediterranean.

The modern Islamic Republic of Iran was established by the 1979 Iranian Revolution that overthrew the Pahlavi monarchy and brought Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini to power as Supreme Leader. The country has since been governed under a unique constitutional system combining elected institutions (parliament, presidency) with appointed clerical authority (the Supreme Leader, the Guardian Council). Ayatollah Ali Khamenei has been Supreme Leader since 1989 — making him one of the world’s longest-serving heads of state.

Iran’s modern international profile is shaped by its Shi’a Islamic state ideology (Iran is approximately 90% Shi’a Muslim, the world’s largest Shi’a Muslim country), its nuclear programme (subject to extensive international negotiations and sanctions), its regional military influence through proxies (Hezbollah in Lebanon, Houthis in Yemen, militias in Iraq and Syria), and its tense relationship with the United States, Israel, and Saudi Arabia.

The country also holds 17% of global natural gas reserves and 9% of global oil reserves — among the largest hydrocarbon endowments anywhere — though sanctions have constrained the country’s ability to fully exploit them.

A Brief History

Ancient Persia

The Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus the Great (550-530 BC) created the world’s first multi-continental empire. Cyrus’s policies of religious tolerance and respect for local customs were extraordinary for the era. The Achaemenids ruled territory from the Balkans to the Indus.

The Parthian (247 BC-224 AD) and Sassanid (224-651 AD) empires followed.

Islamic Conquest

The Arab conquest of Persia (633-654 AD) brought Islam, but Persian culture survived and shaped the broader Islamic world. Persia produced major Islamic philosophers (Avicenna, Al-Ghazali), poets (Hafez, Rumi, Saadi, Omar Khayyam), and scientists.

Safavid and Qajar Persia

The Safavid Empire (1501-1736) established Twelver Shi’a Islam as Persia’s state religion — a defining decision that still shapes Iranian identity. The Qajar Dynasty (1789-1925) governed during a period of progressive Russian and British encroachment.

Pahlavi Era and Revolution

Reza Shah Pahlavi (r. 1925-1941) modernised Iran on Atatürk-style lines. His son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (r. 1941-1979) accelerated Westernisation and industrialisation but governed authoritarianly. The 1979 Revolution brought Ayatollah Khomeini to power and established the Islamic Republic.

The Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988) killed approximately one million people. Subsequent decades have brought repeated tensions with the US (the 1979-81 hostage crisis, sanctions, the 2015 nuclear deal and 2018 US withdrawal), domestic protest movements (1999, 2009 Green Movement, 2017-18, 2019, 2022 Mahsa Amini protests), and continued regional military involvement.

Geography and Climate

Iran covers 1,648,195 km² — about the size of Alaska or Saudi Arabia — and is largely high plateau, with the Alborz Mountains in the north and Zagros Mountains in the west. Mount Damavand (5,609 m) is the highest peak in the Middle East.

Climate

Mostly arid and semi-arid; the Caspian coast in the north is humid; the Persian Gulf coast in the south is hot and humid.

Culture, Language and Religion

Persian (Farsi) is the official language. Significant minority languages include Azerbaijani Turkish, Kurdish, Balochi, and Arabic.

Religion: approximately 90% Shi’a Muslim (the world’s largest Shi’a population), 9% Sunni Muslim, with small Christian, Jewish, Zoroastrian, and Bahá’i minorities (the latter face significant persecution).

The Economy

Iran has the world’s 23rd-largest economy (~$420 billion GDP in 2024, depending on exchange rate methodology). Key sectors: oil and gas (under sanctions but still major), petrochemicals, agriculture, handicrafts (carpets remain culturally and commercially significant).

Cuisine

Persian cuisine is one of the world’s most refined regional traditions, characterised by aromatic rice (chelo, polo), saffron, dried fruits, and slow-cooked stews:

• Chelo kebab — saffron rice with grilled meat, the national dish
• Ghormeh sabzi — herb-based stew with kidney beans and lamb
• Fesenjān — pomegranate-walnut chicken stew
• Tahdig — crispy rice from the bottom of the pot, prized at every meal
• Dolmeh — stuffed grape leaves, peppers, or cabbage

Nature and UNESCO Sites

Iran has 27 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the most of any Middle Eastern country, including Persepolis, Naqsh-e Jahan Square in Isfahan, Pasargadae, Bam Citadel, Soltaniyeh, Persian Gardens, Tabriz Historic Bazaar Complex, Yazd Historic City, and the Lut Desert.

Travel Guide

Entry

Most nationalities require a tourist visa, often obtainable via authorised tour operators. US, UK, and Canadian citizens must travel with a guided tour.

Best Seasons

March-May and September-November are optimal.

Budget

Inexpensive — daily $50-$100 (cash USD/EUR essential as international cards don’t work).

Surprising Facts

1. Persepolis — the Achaemenid imperial capital — was burned by Alexander the Great in 330 BC, marking the formal end of the Achaemenid Empire.¹
2. The Persian carpet has been a major export and cultural artefact for over 2,500 years; Iranian carpets remain among the world’s most prized.⁶
3. Tehran has the world’s largest gemstone collection in its National Treasury, including the famed Daria-i-Noor diamond and the Peacock Throne.³
4. Iran has 37% of its territory in deserts — the Dasht-e Kavir and Dasht-e Lut, with the Lut sometimes recording the world’s highest surface temperatures (over 70°C).¹
5. Iranian women were not required to wear the hijab before the 1979 Revolution; subsequent enforcement has been a major source of political tension.⁶
6. Norouz — the Persian New Year on the spring equinox — is celebrated by an estimated 300 million people across Iran, Central Asia, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, parts of Iraq, and the diaspora.⁶

Sources and References

See the list of cited sources in the page frontmatter.